Clinical Psychology

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The Relationship between Childhood Parental Bonding and Adulthood Anxiety Disorders, Self-esteem, Risk of Suicide and Religion among Lebanese Adults
(2018) Hamdoun, Lama
The study investigated the relationship between parental bonding and anxiety disorders, lowered self-esteem, risk of suicide and religion among Lebanese adults. A total of 200 university students with an age range between 18 and 30 years participated in this study by filling a demographic questionnaire, the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI), Beck anxiety scale (BAI), Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R) and Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale. Scores were analyzed using t-tests and correlational methods including multiple regression. The results showed a positive correlation between paternal parental control and suicide risk as well as anxiety. Also, a negative correlation was found between maternal and paternal parental care and suicide risk. In addition, a positive correlation was found between paternal parental control and anxiety. Also there was a positive correlation between maternal and paternal parental care and self-esteem. A negative correlation was found between paternal parental control and self-esteem. Finally, Christian fathers exhibited higher levels of parental care than Muslim fathers. The study concluded that the parental bonding factors of care and control can be a key determinant of the individual’s anxiety, self-esteem and suicide risk among the Lebanese adults. The study suggested to reexamine in more depth the operational definition of the concept of “care” as well as “control” in the Lebanese culture.
Self-compassion and its Relationship to Narcissism and Codependence in Psychology Students
(2012) Matraji, Nabil
This study examined the relationship between Self-Compassion and Narcissism and Codependence among psychology students. The purpose of the study was to highlight the importance of Self-Compassion in the trainings of psychology students by showing that Self-Compassion is negatively correlated with Narcissism and Codependence. In addition, it was proposed that Codependence negatively correlates with Narcissism. Moreover, it was proposed that Self-Compassion will correlate positively with the three subscales of Narcissism that constitute 'positive' Narcissism (Authority, Superiority and Self-sufficiency) and will correlate negatively with the four subscales of Narcissism that constitute 'pathological' Narcissism (Exploitativeness, Exhibitionism, Entitlement and Vanity). Furthermore, it was hypothesized that Self-Compassion would correlate positively with age. The sample constituted of 97 psychology students from 3 different universities. The students completed The Self-Compassion Scale, The Spann – Fischer Codependence Scale, and The Narcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI-40-item). Findings confirmed that Codependence correlated negatively with Self-Compassion while Narcissism showed no correlation. No correlation was found between Narcissism and Codependence. Findings also showed a weak positive correlation between Self-Compassion and Self-Sufficiency which is one of the three subscales of NPI that indicate positive Narcissism; the results were not significant to support the claim that Self-Compassion correlated positively with the three subscales of Narcissism. No correlation was found between Self-Compassion and age.
Intuitive Eating, Body Dissatisfaction, Self-esteem, BMI, and Relationship Satisfaction among University Students in Lebanon
(2012) Tekeyan, Maria
The topic of this thesis is centered on identifying associations between intuitive eating and self esteem, body dissatisfaction, body mass index and relationship satisfaction, as well as examining gender difference in intuitive eating. The results were based on the analysis of participants' scores on the Intuitive Eating Scale, Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, Marital Taxon Self-report Measure, and Body dissatisfaction subscale from the Eating Disorder Inventory. The participants were 132 randomly selected students (65 males and 67 females) from six major universities in Lebanon. Results were consistent to the original hypotheses; individuals who scored high on intuitive eating were more satisfied in their relationships, had higher self-esteem, lower body dissatisfaction and lower body mass index. Contradictory to the hypothesis, a significant mean difference was found between males and females, rejecting the hypothesis that males and females score alike when it comes to intuitive eating. The results propose new treatment plans and dieting strategies for weight loss patients.
Perfectionism and Family of Origin: Parenting Styles and Family System Characteristics as Predictors of Adaptive and Maladaptive Perfectionism
(2012) El-Hage, Zeina
The present study examined the relationship between adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of perfectionism and family of origin (parenting styles and family system characteristics) using a sample of 225 graduate and undergraduate university students. Both adaptive and maladaptive forms of perfectionism were significantly predicted with authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles. But the effect of authoritarian parenting style was stronger for maladaptive perfectionism; whereas the effect of authoritative parenting style was stronger for adaptive perfectionism, hence confirming the hypothesis. Moreover, results showed that, adaptive perfectionism was correlated with adaptive family characteristics such as, flexibility and cohesion, and was negatively associated with chaos, rigidity and enmeshment. Conversely, maladaptive perfectionism was predicted by maladaptive family characteristics such as extreme family enmeshment, rigidity and chaos.
False Memories in Social Settings as a Consequence of Categorical Thinking
(2012) Aghasyan, Satenik
The present study examined the effects of stereotyping on creation of false memories in social settings. It examined how perceivers process (memorize and recall) expectancy consistent (stereotype congruent) and expectancy inconsistent (stereotype incongruent) information based on categorical thinking. Moreover, the study shed light on underlying phenomenological aspects of the participants' personal judgments of the recall of the items including forenames (Experiment 1) and faces (Experiment 2) paired with either mechanic or nurse occupations. The participants (Exp. 1 N=50, Exp. 2 N=30) were given a memorization task including expectancy consistent and inconsistent names (Exp. 1) and faces (Exp. 2) paired with mechanic or nurse occupations, after the recall task, participants were asked to give their personal judgment (remember, know or guess) about the recall. Results were computed, using paired samples and independent samples t tests. Obtained data showed that false and correct memories were stereotypically congruent in nature and that the participants were mostly guessing the answers due to the difficulty of the task relying on presence of stereotypy.
The Relationship between Gelotophobia, Childhood Teasing, and Psychological Distress
(2012) Mansur, Wasna M.
The aim of the current study was to examine the relationships between gelotophobia, teasing, and psychological distress. It was expected that gelotophobia would be linked to distress rather than frequency of teasing, and that psychological distress would be associated with both gelotophobia and childhood teasing. Three measures were used to collect data. The sample consisted of 150 participants, and there were no effects of gender nor age on any of the variables. The results generally supported the hypotheses, and suggest that distress caused by teasing is strongly related to gelotophobia. The results also show that gelotophobia is associated with depressive and anxious symptoms. It was also evident that distress caused by teasing is more predictive of later psychological functioning than just the frequency of teasing. The implications of these results and their clinical significance are discussed within the framework of Lebanese society.
The Effect of Sexualized Violence against Women in Advertisements
(2012) Lodjikian Baltajian, Houry
The influence of sexualized violence in ads was assessed on consumer's attitudes towards advertising variables and rape myth beliefs. The study was conducted on 240 participants (males=120, females=120), divided between university students and working individuals. An experimental design was utilized, and results were computed using ANOVA and two way analysis of variance, to explain them in socialization role and different age groups. The findings revealed that consumers' attitudes towards ad, firm and purchase intentions varied significantly across the three ad conditions, but their attitudes toward acceptance of violence was nor influenced. Gender also showed a significant effect on all the attitude scales, across the three ad conditions, while age only played a major role in attitude towards firm and acceptance of sexual violence against women.
Interrelationships between Personality and Social Variables and Pick Up Line Preferences
(2012) Hakimian, Marina
The current study examined women’s responsiveness to various pick up lines. 194 females imagined being approached by a hypothetical stranger using one of the three pick up line types: Flippant, innocuous and direct. Supporting sex role socialization women preferred being approached by innocuous lines, on the other hand males preferred the use of direct lines. Flippant lines were not favoured by both genders, as it conveyed low trustworthiness and lack of social skills in the line user. Moreover, lower ratings were given to the perceived trustworthiness, sociability, sense of humour and intelligence when the line used was flippant. Contrary to the hypothesis, no relationships between Eysenck PEN variables and religion on one hand and responsiveness to pick up lines on the other were obtained, suggesting the weight of the pick up lines that overruled the personality variables and religion.
Perceived Collective Continuity between Minority and Majority Groups
(2011) Demirjian, Hovig Samuel
Previous studies have found that perceived collective continuity predicts important group-related variables. In the following research paper we hypothesized that perceived collective continuity positively correlates with collective self-esteem, perceived group enitiativity and individual self-esteem while it is negatively associated with group anomie for both Lebanese and Armenian nationals. The paper also examined group differences between the Lebanese and Armenian samples on perceiving their nation as more continuous. For this study, Lebanese (N=114) and Armenians (N=101) totaling N=215 completed self-administered questionnaires on group related constructs. As was hypothesized, the results showed significant and positive correlation between perceived collective continuity and collective self-esteem, perceived group enitiativity and individual self-esteem for the Lebanese group, Armenian group and total Lebanese-Armenian groups. As for the relation of collective continuity with group anomie, the results failed to support the stated hypothesis. Moreover, members of the Armenian ethic group showed significantly stronger collective continuity compared to their Lebanese counterparts. The obtained results are explained in terms of group related characteristics and intergroup relations between minority and majority groups.
Fear of Failure and Motivation on Behavior of Choice among High School Students
(2011) Arakelian, Ani
The study attempted to examine a set of hypotheses relating fear of failure (FF) to motivation and their effect on choice of task difficulty level among high school students (N = 115). The Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI), a rating scale on participants’ inclination to take part in a visual IQ task, the completion of one visual IQ task and the Situational Motivation Scale (SIMS) were group administered. Results were computed using analysis of variance, correlation, regression and non parametric tests. Obtained data indicated that those who are intrinsically motivated were more inclined to take part in a novel task than those extrinsically motivated or amotivated. The findings also revealed that choosing to participate in a proposed visual IQ task depended on whether the school was English or French in orientation, and the higher the grade level, the less likely they were to participate. There was a further tendency for older participants to choose an easier level of the IQ task than the younger ones. Results were explained in terms of FF needing the proper context to operate effectively.
Attitudes, Beliefs and Expectations Towards Maternal Employment and Non-parental Care among Female University Students
(2011) Fiani, Nathalie J.
The purpose of the current study was to investigate the attitudes and expectations of female Lebanese college students (N = 145) in regard to maternal employment, exclusivity of maternal care, and non-parental childcare. Beliefs about the costs and benefits of maternal employment were measured by the Beliefs about the Consequences of Maternal Employment scale (BACMEC). The Exclusive Maternal Care scale determined the extent to which the participants believe that only a mother is best suited to care for her child, whereas the Home/Employment Orientation scale evaluated the woman's preference for staying home versus her desire to return to work. Additional variables were explored in order to identify the subjects' preferences and perceived future plans in relation to maternal work history, the type and timing of non-parental care arrangements, work resumption, and the major factors influencing such decisions. The study indicated a significant relationship between early maternal work history, beliefs in the benefits of maternal work, and work resumption. Moreover, beliefs in the costs of maternal work were significantly associated to the attitudes toward the exclusivity of maternal care, which in turn yielded a significant relation to participants' home/employment orientation. The correlation between subjects' home/career inclinations and preferred age of the child to be placed in childcare and for mother to resume work also proved significant.
The Interrelationship between Love Styles and Relationship Satisfaction among Haigazian University Students in Lebanon
(2011) Harakeh, Mayda
The hypotheses of the study were: 1) Passionate love would be positively correlated with the Eros love style, 2) passionate love would be negatively correlated with the Ludus love style, 3) self-centered sexuality would be negatively correlated with the Agape love style, 4) passionate love would be the greatest predictor of relationship satisfaction, and 5) relationship satisfaction would increase significantly more as individuals became more securely attached. The participants had to complete the following scales: the Passionate Love Scale (PLS), the Brief Sexual Attitudes Scale (BSAS), the Adult Attachment Questionnaire (AAQ), the Love Attitudes Scale (LAS), And the Multidimensional Relationship Questionnaire (MRQ). After the data were collected, a correlation was performed to test for hypotheses 1, 2, 3, and 5, and a multiple regression was performed to determine what predicts relationship satisfaction, and to test for hypothesis 4, which stated that passionate love would be the greatest predictor of relationship satisfaction. The results revealed that passionate love was positively correlated with Eros. However, it was not significantly correlated with Ludus. In addition, self-centered sexuality was significantly and negatively correlated with Agape. Therefore, hypotheses 1 and 3 were supported, but hypothesis 2 was not. Moreover, passionate love was not the greatest predictor of relationship satisfaction, contrary to the prediction that it was, and secure attachment was positively and significantly correlated with relationship satisfaction. Moreover, it was, in fact, the greatest predictor of relationship satisfaction. Hence, hypothesis 4 was not confirmed whereas hypothesis 5 was.
Drama Therapy in a Lebanese Prison
(2011) Daccache, Zeina
This thesis is essentially an exploratory study that examined the effect of participation in a drama therapy program on the psychological well-being of an inmate sample in Roumieh prison, Lebanon. In conjunction with previous theoretical research on the topic of drama therapy, the study provided an analysis of the effect of this discipline on two aspects of the psychological well-being of the inmates: their relational capacities (relation with oneself and with other people) and their psychiatric symptoms. These two effects constitute the two hypotheses analyzed in this thesis, specifically: 1 – The participation in the drama therapy program improves the psychological well-being of the sample inmates in Roumieh prison by producing a change in their relation to oneself and to other people. 2 – The participation in the drama therapy program improves the psychological well-being of the sample inmates in Roumieh prison by effecting a reduction in their psychological distress and psychiatric disorders' symptoms. To test these hypotheses, two evaluating tools were used. The "I Am Poem", a sentence completion material was used as a projective tool to test the first hypothesis, and the "Brief Symptom Inventory" (BSI) a 53 items test intended to measure psychological distress and psychiatric disorders was used to test the second prediction. The results showed that the relational capacities of the inmates in Roumieh prison were improved as a function of their participation in the drama therapy program, whereas their psychiatric symptoms weren't considerably influenced by the program. The thesis attempted to explain these results according to the situational context and conditions in which the study was conducted namely the prison environment.
Depression, Anxiety and Self-esteem of Institutionalized and Non-institutionalized Lebanese Adolescents
(2011) Daaboul, Juliet
It was previously predicted that adolescents living in institutional homes and orphanages, away from the typical nurturing environment in a family, would have more psychological symptoms than those living with their parents. A sample of Lebanese adolescents living in orphanages and institutional homes (AOI, n= 75) were compared to those living with their parents and families (APF, n= 75) on depression, anxiety and self-esteem. Both samples were given the Centre for Epidemiological Depression Scale for Children (CED-SC), Spence Children Anxiety Scale (SCAS), Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSE-S), and a demographic questionnaire. Lebanese adolescents in orphanages and institutional homes were found with higher symptoms of depression and anxiety. No difference in self-esteem was found between both samples. Additionally, when males and females were compared separately, no difference was found in the self-esteem of both samples. Having a deceased parent was not found to lead to higher symptoms of depression in Lebanese adolescents living in institutional homes and orphanages. These results were compared to previous findings, and suggestions were made for further studies.
Mothers of Children with Special Needs: The Relationship between the Acceptance-rejection of their Children’s Condition and their Own Quality of Life
(2023) Eid, Lea
This research aimed to examine the relationship between perceived acceptance-rejection of Lebanese mothers towards their children with special needs and their quality of life, taking into consideration the mothers' employment status and the severity of their child's disability. The purposeful convenient sample included 103 participants, all mothers of children diagnosed with autism, learning difficulties, psychomotor difficulties, and/or mental health issues, from the Karagheusian Association Primary Healthcare Center in Burj Hammoud, Lebanon. Employing a non-experimental quantitative design, correlational and regression analyses were conducted to determine whether: (1a) working mothers perceived themselves as having higher levels of parental acceptance toward their children when compared to mothers who did not work, (1b) working mothers had higher levels of quality of life compared to mothers who did not work, (2) a positive association existed between mother’s acceptance of children’s disability and quality of life and (3) child case severity moderated the relationship between acceptance and quality of life. The main research instruments used were the Quality- of-Life Index (QOLI), the Parental Acceptance-Rejection questionnaire (PARQ), and a demographic scale. None of the three hypotheses were supported. The mother’s employment status as well as the child case severity did not influence the relationship between the mother’s acceptance and her quality of life. The study highlighted the necessity for using larger samples in the future as well as a more comprehensive research approach that takes into consideration other factors in the lives of mothers, such as, personal individual characteristics and types of social support.
Gender Role Attitudes and Co-parenting Behavior in Relation to Marital Satisfaction among Married Couples in Lebanon
(2023) Ibrahim, Rania Haj
Marital satisfaction is a prevalent issue in relationships that has been associated with different factors that contribute to the overall mental health of the individual. Family system theorists have been interested in examining factors that could predict marital satisfaction such as gender role attitudes and co-parenting behavior. It was found that alignment in views among couples on gender role attitudes and co-parenting behavior could contribute to higher levels of marital satisfaction. Due to lack of findings regarding this issue in the Lebanese context, this study is one of the first to examine the relationship between these three variables among Lebanese married couples by focusing on the alignment in views and congruence in beliefs. By translating the scales into Arabic, the present study also aimed to contribute to the initial step of the adaptation of those scales to Lebanese culture. This is a quantitative survey design with a total of 122 participants who were recruited from different areas in Lebanon through snowball sampling. The Quality of Marriage index, Gender Role Attitude Scale (GRAS), and Co-parenting Scale were translated into Arabic through forward translation followed up by a committee approach. Prior to addressing the study hypotheses, all translated scales were examined for reliability and cultural sensitivity. Results have supported both hypotheses in showing that higher alignment in gender role attitudes and co-parenting behavior positively predicted higher scores on marital satisfaction among married couples. Clinical implications from findings assist in guiding mental health practitioners that work with couples and families to address marital conflict by examining similarities and differences in core beliefs among couples. The study’s limitations were the non-randomized sampling and use of two scales that are adapted in Westernized contexts. Future research should be directed towards in depth examination of the operational definitions of the constructs: gender role attitudes and marital satisfaction in the Lebanese or non-westernized contexts thus leading to the development of culturally appropriate measures.
The Relationship between COVID-19 Lockdown and the Emotional Aspect of Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) among Lebanese Adults
(2023) Atallah, Nabil
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between COVID-19 lockdown and the emotional abuse among adult Lebanese intimate partners. Since the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, several studies highlighted the impact on mental health due to the change imposed on individuals such as social distancing, lockdown, and movement/travel restrictions (Holmes et al. 2020, Layard et al. 2020). COVID-19 pandemic imposed on partners in intimate relationships the experience of multiple forms of external stressors that have destabilized their regular relationship pattern. (Pietromonaco & Overall, 2020). The Vulnerability-Stress Adaptation Model (VSAM), in which the pattern shows that the quality and stability of an intimate relationship among couples is affected directly by the couple’s ability to endure and adapt with stressful events such as COVID-19 lockdown. The quantitative nonexperimental cross-sectional survey design was used in the study. The Multidimensional Measure of Emotional Abuse (MMEA) and survey questionnaire were the instruments used in the process of conducting this research with 104 participants. Results showed that the numbers deviated more towards a negative attitude of the participants towards ending their intimate relationship with their partner during COVID-19 lockdown. The number of children showed to be a significant predictor in our data for the impression of participants about their partners’ emotionally abusive attitude towards them. There was no significant difference between both genders in the impression of participants about their emotionally abusive attitudes towards their partners during COVID-19 lockdown. We recommend to conduct further research on emotional abuse among intimate partners in Lebanon, including its prevalence, risk factors, and long-term effects.
The IDRLabs Toxic Positivity Test (IDR-TPT), Validation Study in Lebanon
(2023) Kahhoul, Zakia M.
Toxic Positivity is a newly emerging construct that has captured the attention of mental health professionals (Quintero & Long, 2019; Goodman, 2022). It refers to the overgeneralization of a cheerful, optimistic state across all contexts, resulting in the nullification and invalidation of unpleasant experiences (Quintero & Long, 2019). According to Hensley (2021), negating said experiences will leave them unprocessed, which will lead them to be stored in a dysfunctional manner and to become aggravated when the triggers are evoked (Hensley, 2021). Toxic Positivity may force an individual to display socially desirable “positive emotions” and mask / hide their authentic emotions. This inability to be true to oneself can increase the feeling of inauthenticity (Simpson & Stroh, 2004) and lead the person to feel shame and guilt (Goodman, 2022). Since Toxic Positivity can possibly have potent consequences on well-being, it is crucial for the scientific community to be able to examine it. Given the recent development of the construct, little empirical research exists and only one measure has been developed to assess it, namely the Toxic Positivity Test (TPT) published by the IDRLabs (IDRLabs - TPT) with limited knowledge on its validity and reliability. As such, the aim of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the IDR-TPT by employing a survey design. In the process, the factor structure of the tool was tested using confirmatory factor analysis and convergent and validity was assessed in relation to emotional intelligence dimensions and surface acting behavior. A total of 223 adult, English speaking participants were recruited using convenient sampling. The results of the CFA revealed that the model was a good fit for the data. Moreover, partially supporting the theoretically expected relationship TPT was related to Authenticity, Perceived Emotional Distress and this supports convergent validity. However, and nonaligned with the current study’s hypotheses the relationship between TPT, Emotional Intelligence and Surface Acting this could be explained through the choice of the tool for Emotional Intelligence (SEIS) and the level of insight and intentionality for Surface Acting. Finding suggests that further research is needed to fully understand the relationships between Toxic positivity, Emotional Intelligence, and Surface Acting.
The Role of Family of Origin Experiences, Early Maladaptive Schemas, and Attachment Style in Predicting Intimate Partner Violence
(2023) Merdas, Farah
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is an important public health concern. In recent years, there has been greater awareness concerning this phenomenon, its causes and consequences. Due to the relational nature of IPV, attachment theory, schema theory and family of origin violence (witnessing interparental violence and experiencing direct abuse) it appeared to be a useful framework to better understand the components and dynamics of IPV. A total of 165 Lebanese participants were recruited using convenient sampling to complete an online survey. The study used 5 instruments: Conflict Tactics Scale-2 (CTS-2) to measure IPV, Experience in Close Relationship Scale - Short Form (ECR-S) to measure attachment style, Childhood Trauma Questionnaire- Short Form (CTS) and Conflict Tactics Scale, Parent-Parent (CTS) to measure family of origin violence and finally Young Schema Questionnaire -Short Form (YSQ-SF) to measure early maladaptive schemas. The statistical analysis partially supported the first hypothesis in which only direct experience of abuse was shown to predict IPV perpetration and victimization in adulthood. Also, avoidant attachment style appeared to be a partial mediator between family of origin violence and IPV. The other hypotheses were not supported. Hence, additional research with a greater sample size and a clinical sample is needed to provide a greater understanding of the phenomenon of IPV.
Patriarchal Beliefs, Sociodemographic Factors, and Spontaneous Self-affirmation as Predictors to Beliefs toward Intimate Partner Violence
(2023) Bahja, Kawthar
Intimate partner violence (IPV) has been studied extensively in Western countries. However, studies from the Arab world and more specifically Lebanon are still scarce with only 50% of the 22 Arab countries presenting with eligible prevalence studies. Few studies (e.g. Usta et al., 2007; Hejase, et al., 2015) conducted in Lebanon highlight that intimate partner violence is very much a serious social problem. However not much is known about people’s beliefs toward intimate partner violence and what predictors play a role in forming those beliefs. The current study employs a survey to assess predictors of intimate partner violence in a sample of adult males and females residing in Lebanon. A risk factor for negative cognitions on intimate partner violence that has been supported theoretically and empirically is patriarchal ideology - a term used by scholars to demonstrate gender inequality, male-dominant society, oppression of women, and hierarchal social arrangements (Dobash&Dobash, 1979). Research has also shown that negative beliefs on intimate partner violence are related to having witnessed episodes of intimate partner violence. This is explained through social learning theories that detail the intergenerational transmission of violence (Akers, 1998; Bandura, 1973, 1977). While risk factors are studied extensively, protective factors are evaluated to a lesser extent. In the current context, spontaneous self-affirmation – the process of naturally reflecting on valued aspects of the self as competencies, central roles and core values (Harris et al., 2019) – is assessed for the first time in relation to beliefs about intimate partner violence. Spontaneous self-affirmation could buffer against threats to men’s self-image specifically in relation to their societal status and masculinity (Bosson, et al., 2021) and render them less likely to endorse violence against women. The current study therefore assessed patriarchal ideology, spontaneous self-affirmation, sociodemographic factors of age and gender as predictors of beliefs toward intimate partner violence while controlling for the contribution of having witnessed and perpetrated intimate partner violence. Also, of interest were examining differences in beliefs towards intimate partner violence across education level and marital status, as literature has previously pointed to differences albeit not consistently. A total of 155 participants aged 18 and above and residing in Lebanon completed the survey online. Response rate was generally low and a large number of participants failed to complete the survey possibly as a function of the sensitive nature of the topic. In a hierarchical multiple regression, the variables of interest were evaluated and results showed that the only significant predictor of beliefs toward intimate partner violence was gender such that males were more likely to hold negative cognitions and beliefs toward intimate partner violence. Neither spontaneous self-affirmation, nor patriarchal ideology emerged as significant predictors. The latter may have been a result of the education level of the current sample. The majority of participants held university degrees and this could have served as a buffer for patriarchal beliefs (Boyle, 2016). Indeed, differences emerged across education level such that participants with a high school education or lower had more negative beliefs than participants holding doctoral degrees. The study points to the importance of raising awareness on intimate partner violence among male youth specifically and using psychoeducation to increase knowledge on intimate partner violence.

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